Rika Ishikawa
Rise
Above
升起
Shēng qǐ
上に上昇
Ue ni jōshō
ps44
Supergreditur
We have heard the story of salvation with our ears.
The lesson has been drawn from the instruction of the years.
Our parents told us of the work You did in their days.
They spoke of how You cultivated the investigation of good ways.
You planted our ancestors with knowledge of the land.
You granted protection with the promise of Your providential hand.
When tribes were appointed the role in instruction
family taught their children as students of function.
Instructors are now trained in fields of investigation.
Students are praised for research on stations for the nation.
Ignorance is used as the motivation to acquire knowledge.
Procedures are written so policy will be acknowledged.
Possession came by responsible ownership.
Responsibility was grown with statecraft in sponsorship.
A posteriori thought was the basis for the metaphysical.
It was not so mysterious as statistically inferential.
A whole was left in the soul of philosophy
with the removal of conceptual virtuosity.
Theory provides a context for factuality.
No theory results in too much detachment from reality.
When I had no theory I felt like I had been sold for nought.
The facts did not sit with what had been drawn as taught.
Reproach from the crazy neighbor was not dismissed.
Derision was entertained like truth with a twist.
Theism became a byword among the atheists.
Haters shook their heads like we were extraneous.
Confusion moved like a cloud before me.
Shame from disgrace disfigured my facial esprit.
The voice of him that reproached me for blasphemy
was leveled by the 'avenger' for the sake of the enemy.
When all this had fallen on me,
faith was not rejected as a fatality.
The faithful heart was not turned back
though my steps had been placed under attack.
We had been taken to the place of dragons
where the smoke from the artillery cannons
had darkened the blackened
after the fire had blasted.
My soul was bowed down to the dust.
Like the serpent my belly met the earth's crust.
We counted ourselves as sheep for the slaughter.
The micropest rode the flea on the rat that threatened the altar.
If we had forgotten the One that had risen from the many
or lifted our hands to a strange god for the promise offered by the enemy,
would the knowledge of God not find out what we had done out of envy?
Would the Author of the covenant not know the secrets of the heart?
Would that not be the place where the trouble would start?
Awake my soul. How is it you have fallen?
You need to rise up to defeat the problem.
It is time to meet the destiny of your name.
Falling to fate would be such a shame.
Belief in the covenant has to be preserved
for the sake of the love that has been deserved.
You are our Leader, the Christ.
Deliver Your truth seekers from blight.
The consideration of the mystical experience of awe
has to be tempered by caution toward the ascetic fever drawn.
What is the name for the first month of the year?
January is the English word that we hear.
The time for review has past.
Resolve for improvement has been cast.
Rise above habit to find the better way.
The right change will improve how you behave.
We will rise to defeat the challenge from our adversaries.
We will leave behind the error from the centuries.
We will deflect the attacks from our attackers
to focus on policy that really matters.
Administration with faith in service to the public
is a model that admits that defense is an element in justice.
God help our enemies feel shame for their hatred.
The promise of salvation is an encounter with the sacred.
We welcome your love throughout the day
and praise your name for the economy of Your way.
Negotiation has been favored over invasion
as fated predestination.
The art of the deal
preceded the invention of the wheel.
We turned back
from making an attack.
The system of voting for election
was better than the force of enacted malediction.
Employment from the spoils of victory in the vote
did not reward merit by experience with education to note.
The children of Israel had been scattered among the polymorphs
with the unstable as the staple for the drones enforced.
We felt like sheep designated as the meal
for the wolves of appetite unfettered and real.
I was called to rise above this before I was born.
This witness is for heaven as a robe that is worn.
My mouth was prepared to deliver the symbolic word.
I was hidden until a time when the message could take flight like a bird.
I was polished by instruction in history, poetry and politics.
I was taught in a group that prepared to present the promise fixed.
I was told you are Israel reborn.
I felt like my performance was torn with the forlorn.
I had labored in vain.
My work had ended in pain.
My loss in battle had resulted in resignation to the higher call.
The promise of reward was foretold by the Father of all.
This person was formed within my mother's womb
to bring Jacob to Israel as one who transcended the tomb.
The kingdom of heaven is a light for all the nations
to the ends of the earth for the promise of salvation.
The Redeemer of Israel was seen as the cause of pain.
They didn't see that he became incarnate for the Name.
The Lamb of God takes away the sin of the world.
He ranks ahead of me because before me he was as barley pearled.
I baptized with water that he might be revealed.
The Light descended like a dove that he might the Spirit wield.
He upon whom the dove descended
baptized with the Holy Spirit so love will be apprehended.
I have seen his wonderful work and have testified
that Jesus is the divine person whose body was crucified.
Grace to you who believe with peace from our Father
by whom you were called in love with the Son as author.
You have been enriched in him by speech and knowledge of every kind
but the way to avoid particular sins by his gospel is a gift that some have yet to find.
The testimony of Christ has been strengthened among you
as a spiritual gift to wait until the revelation of Jesus as Lord has rung true.
Statistics are the modern form for augury.
Categorical counts provide terms for the prediction glossary.
Flights of birds through a field of vision
had provided a visual example of group indecision.
The entrails of an animal sacrificed for expiation
had demonstrated striations in the functional station.
The collection of data for a categorical description
has to be organized for display to form a position on subscription.
Let God arise for our help
to redeem us all for our higher self.
-----------------------
Psalm 44
1 We have heard with our ears, O God, our fathers have told us, what work thou didst in their days, in the times of old.
2 How thou didst drive out the heathen with thy hand, and plantedst them; how thou didst afflict the people, and cast them out.
3 For they got not the land in possession by their own sword, neither did their own arm save them: but thy right hand, and thine arm, and the light of thy countenance, because thou hadst a favour unto them.
4 Thou art my King, O God: command deliverances for Jacob.
5 Through thee will we push down our enemies: through thy name will we tread them under that rise up against us.
6 For I will not trust in my bow, neither shall my sword save me.
7 But thou hast saved us from our enemies, and hast put them to shame that hated us.
8 In God we boast all the day long, and praise thy name for ever. Selah.
9 But thou hast cast off, and put us to shame; and goest not forth with our armies.
10 Thou makest us to turn back from the enemy: and they which hate us spoil for themselves.
11 Thou hast given us like sheep appointed for meat; and hast scattered us among the heathen.
12 Thou sellest thy people for nought, and dost not increase thy wealth by their price.
13 Thou makest us a reproach to our neighbours, a scorn and a derision to them that are round about us.
14 Thou makest us a byword among the heathen, a shaking of the head among the people.
15 My confusion is continually before me, and the shame of my face hath covered me,
16 For the voice of him that reproacheth and blasphemeth; by reason of the enemy and avenger.
17 All this is come upon us; yet have we not forgotten thee, neither have we dealt falsely in thy covenant.
18 Our heart is not turned back, neither have our steps declined from thy way;
19 Though thou hast sore broken us in the place of dragons, and covered us with the shadow of death.
20 If we have forgotten the name of our God, or stretched out our hands to a strange god;
21 Shall not God search this out? for he knoweth the secrets of the heart.
22 Yea, for thy sake are we killed all the day long; we are counted as sheep for the slaughter.
23 Awake, why sleepest thou, O Lord? arise, cast us not off for ever.
24 Wherefore hidest thou thy face, and forgettest our affliction and our oppression?
25 For our soul is bowed down to the dust: our belly cleaveth unto the earth.
26 Arise for our help, and redeem us for thy mercies' sake.
--------------------
===============
---------------------
What is the name for the first month of the year?
January is the English word.
Chn. 今年第一个月的名字是什么？
Jīnnián dì yī gè yuè de míngzì shì shénme?
一月是中国字
Yī yuè shì zhōngguó zì.
Jpn. 年の最初の月の名前は何ですか？
Toshi no saisho no tsuki no namae wa nanidesu ka?
1月は日本語です
Ich tsuki wa nihongodesu.
Krn. 연도의 첫 달의 이름은 무엇입니까?
yeondoui cheos dal-ui ileum-eun mueos-ibnikka?
1 월은 한국어입니다.
I wol-eun hangug-eoibnida.
Ltn. Quod nomen est primus mensis anni?
January sit habitantibus terram.
Itln. Qual è il nome per il primo mese dell'anno?
Gennaio è la parola italiana.
Spn. ¿Cómo se llama el primer mes del año?
Enero es la palabra española.
Frn. Quel est le nom du premier mois de l'année?
Janvier est le mot français.
Gmn. Wie heißt der erste Monat des Jahres?
Januar ist das deutsche Wort.
Dtch. Wat is de naam voor de eerste maand van het jaar?
Januari is het Nederlandse woord.
Czch. Jak se jmenuje první měsíc v roce?
Leden je české slovo.
Hng. Mi a neve az év első hónapjának?
Január a magyar szó.
Grk. Ποιο είναι το όνομα για τον πρώτο μήνα του έτους;
Poio eínai to ónoma gia ton próto mína tou étous?
Ο Ιανουάριος είναι η ελληνική λέξη.
O Ianouários eínai i ellinikí léxi.
Trk. Yılın ilk ayının adı nedir?
Ocak Türkçe kelime.
What is the name for the first month of the year?
January is the English word we hear.
-------------------------
Psalm 44
The 44th psalm was composed by the sons of Korah. It is classified in the series of lamentations of the people.
The first verse is an empirical acknowledgement that lessons were drawn from what was heard from the experience of the parents in the discernment of ancestral wisdom. Instruction by family participation in a tribal service to the kingdom had been the means for education.
Instruction in fields of service is a modern extraction with development.
Verses 2 to 9 qualify as a historical review of success with faith. Verses 10-23 described the disaster that gave cause for the lament. The last 3 verses (24-26) request help in rescue from the crisis.
------------------------
My Palms
"Deutero-Isaiah" dates from the time of the Israelites' exile in Babylon. Chapter 49 includes the second of the songs of the "Suffering Servant".
The servant songs are four poems within the Book of Isaiah written about a certain "servant of YHWH". God calls the servant to lead the nations, but the servant is horribly repressed. He is rewarded in the end.
The second poem was written from the Servant's point of view. It is an account of his pre-natal calling to lead both Israel and the nations. The call was probably drawn from the description made by Jeremiah. (Jer.1:5)
The Servant is now portrayed as the prophet equipped and called to restore the nation to God. This was a development in the history of Judah. Israel had identified with Elohim. This was standard for the Middle Eastern movement toward monotheism.
The self-identification with the independent tribalism however led to the alliance with Syria that attempted to force Judah to fight against the Assyrians.
Judah favored the One with the unspoken Name. It stood as a symbol that the larger victory would be won by identification with the one deity. The work of this kingdom was to persuade people that this faith could be true.
The second anticipated the fourth song. The Servant was without success. Taken with the picture in the first song, his success will come not by political or military action, but by becoming a light to the Gentiles. This victory was ultimately in God's hands.
Much of the imagery of what Christians call the Old Testament was drawn from the weapons of an army, but it represented a movement within the New Covenant. The new is simply a development away from savage primitivism as an emblem of independent leadership in the individuality of defiance toward unity.
The new promise is grounded in conservative reform toward reasonable preparation for defense with the lessons drawn from the history of faith for personal participation in responsible ownership. The prenatal calling is an expression of the inheritance of the promise.
Isaiah 49:1-7
Listen to me, O coastlands,
pay attention, you people from far away!
The LORD called me before I was born,
while I was in my mother's womb he named me.
He made my mouth like a sharp sword,
in the shadow of his hand he hid me;
he made be a polished arrow
in his quiver he hid me away.
He said to me, 'You are my servant,
Israel, in whom I will be glorified.'
I said, 'I have labored in vain.
I have spent my strength for nothing and vanity;
yet surely my cause is with the LORD.
My reward is with my God.'
The LORD who formed me in the womb to be his servant,
to bring Jacob back to him
that Israel might be gathered to him
has honored me in his sight.
My God has become my strength.
He said,
"It is too light a thing that you should be my servant
to raise up the tribes of Jacob
and to restore the survivors of Israel.
I will give you as a light to the nations
that my salvation may reach to the end of the earth.'
The Redeemer of Israel and his Holy One
to one deeply despised, abhorred by the nations
the slave of rulers said,
'Kings shall see and stand up.
Princes shall prostrate themselves
because the LORD, who is faithful,
the Holy One of Israel, has chosen you.'
---------------------
I was called before I was born.
This kingdom is for heaven as a robe that is worn.
My mouth was prepared to deliver the prophetic word.
I was hidden until a time when the message could take flight like a bird.
I was polished by instruction in history, poetry and politics.
I was taught in a group that prepared to present the promise fixed.
I was told you are Israel reborn.
I felt like my performance was torn with the forlorn.
I had labored in vain.
My work had ended in pain.
My loss in battle had resulted in resignation to the higher call.
The promise of reward was foretold by the Father of all.
This servant was formed within my mother's womb
to bring Jacob to Israel as one who transcended the tomb.
The kingdom of heaven is a light for all the nations
to the ends of the earth for the promise of salvation.
The Redeemer of Israel was seen as the cause of pain.
They didn't see that he became incarnate for the Name.
================
Corinth
Horace (65-8 BCE)
Poseidon was the patron god for Corinth. He was one of the Twelve Olympians in ancient Greek religion and myth. He was the god of the sea, storms, earthquakes and horses.
Poseidon supported the Greeks against the Trojans during the Trojan War in Homer's Iliad.
The Greek hero Odysseus provoked Poseidon's fury by blinding his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus, in the sea voyage from Troy back to Ithaca in the Odyssey. Poseidon punished him with storms, the complete loss of his ship and companions and a ten-year delay.
The island of Atlantis was Poseidon's domain in Plato's Timaeus and Critias.
He was venerated as a chief deity at Pylos and Thebes before he was chosen as the patron for Corinth.
The city is is located in south-central Greece. It is about 78 kilometres (48 mi) west of Athens. The Oneia Mountains and the monolithic rock of Acrocorinth where the medieval acropolis was built are natural features that surround the area.
The leadership was able to control the only land access to the Peloponnese. The control of the location dominated the trade in both the Saronic gulf (to the east) and the gulf of Corinth (to the west).
The city was known as "Wealthy Corinth." The control of the location was the reason for the wealth.
An oligarchical government seized power around 550 BCE. This government allied with Sparta within the Peloponnesian League.
Corinth participated in the Persian Wars and the Peloponnesian War as an ally of Sparta. The two allies fell out with one another after Sparta's victory in the Peloponnesian war.
Corinth pursued an independent policy in the various wars of the early 4th century BCE. The Acrocorinth was the seat of a Macedonian garrison after the Macedonian conquest of Greece until 243 BCE. The city was liberated and joined the Achaean League.
The strategic port was captured and completely destroyed by the Roman army in 146 BCE nearly a century later.
Corinth flourished as a newly rebuilt Roman colony in 44 BCE and became the administrative capital of the Roman province of Achaea. The official name for Poseidon became Neptune.
First Letter
The apostle Paul traveled from Athens to Corinth about 50 CE during his second missionary journey. The trip took him from the seclusion of an ancient university in a provincial town to the seat of government and trade.
There had been a time when Athens had been politically greater than Corinth. Athens had only the memory of its preeminence. Corinth held the keys of commerce and swarmed with a crowded population. Paul founded the Church there.
Chapter 18 of the Acts of the Apostles records the final part of the second missionary journey of Paul together with Silas and Timothy. The beginning of the third journey starts before the end of the chapter.
Gallio was proconsul of Achaia from 50-52 CE. Paul first met with Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:2). They were to become his important associates. They were well known to the Corinthian church (1 Corinth. 16:19; cf. Romans 16:3-4).
References to the command of Roman Emperor Claudius (r. 41-54) for "all the Jews to depart from Rome" appeared in the writings of Roman historians Suetonius (c.69 – c.122) and Cassius Dio (c.150 – c. 235) as well as Acts 18:2.
Paul waited until Silas and Timothy had come from Macedonia before he testified to the Jews that Jesus was the Christ. (Acts 18:5)
Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus or Gallio was a Roman senator and brother of famous writer Seneca. The Jews had taken Paul to the judgment seat and accused him of persuasion to worship contrary to the law. Gallio judged that the accusation was concerned with words and names in Jewish law. He refused to judge Paul for wicked crimes.
Sosthenes was the chief ruler of the synagogue. He was seized and beaten by the mob in the presence of Gallio according to the Acts of the Apostles. Some manuscripts added that the mob was composed of Greeks, others of Jews.
Sosthenes is identified as a co-author to the first letter to the Corinthians. (1Corinth.1:1)
The apostle had spent eighteen months in Corinth, so he was intimately familiar with the church and many of its congregants 4 years prior to writing the letter now known as the first. The letter refers to another that preceded it. (1 Corinth.5:10-11)
Paul had been in Ephesus for more than two years on his third missionary journey when he received a disturbing report of quarreling within the Corinthian church. He received the report from people associated with one of its members, Chloe (1 Corinth. 1:11).
The church he had founded so recently (Acts 18:1–17) had already developed deep divisions. The situation required immediate action. Paul wrote his letter in c.55, just as he was planning to leave Ephesus for Macedonia (1 Corinth. 16:5–8).
First Corinthians contains a frank discussion of the church and the issues that impacted the people in the first century. The Corinthian church was corrupted by a variety of sins. Paul provided an important model for how the church should handle the problem of sin.
The letter challenged believers to examine every area of life through the lens of the gospel.
1 Corinth.1:9
--------------------
1 Corinth. 1:3-6,9
Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.
I give thanks for you because of the grace of God that has been given you in Christ Jesus. You have been enriched in him in speech and knowledge of every kind just as the testimony of Christ has been strengthened among you so you are not lacking in any spiritual gift as you wait for the revelation of our Lord Jesus Christ.
God is faithful. You were called into fellowship with his Son, Jesus Christ.
---------------------
Grace to you and peace from our Father
by whom you were called into fellowship with the Son as author.
You have been enriched in him by speech and knowledge of every kind
but the way to avoid particular sins by his gospel is a gift that some have yet to find.
The testimony of Christ has been strengthened among you
as a spiritual gift to wait until the revelation of Jesus as Lord has rung true.
================
Testimony
The opening to the gospel of John echoed that to the book of Genesis (Gen 1:1), but whereas Genesis refered to God's activity at the beginning of creation, here the reader was told of a being who existed before creation took place.
The Word already was before the beginning of everything. This association had literary associations with Greeks and Jews. The Greeks held that the cosmos was the order of the universe that is ordered by reason.
Reason is this sense is more concerned with knowledge of order outside the experience of human nature though. Our nature is defined by the search to see truth outside of our own existence.
The Jews believed that creation took place by God's speech (Gen 1; Ps 33:6). The concept of incarnation however seemed like a product of polytheism in the deification of the emperor. It was not accepted as a theological tenet.
The divine nature was not only outside of the human, he was outside of nature as that which was totally other.
Christianity would assert that the nature which was believed to be totally other was somehow united in the divine person of the Son.
The Romans were practical in their anthropomorphism. They used the deification of the emperor as the central derivative of polytheism, but the office of the emperor and his line of succession was viewed as something that was contrary to the rule of law in the republic.
The belief in Saturn was a symbol of time's consumption of the experience of itself in the cursus honorum and the imperial line of succession. The emperor had to reconcile the will of the plebians with that of the patricians for the benefit of the republic in the competition with other governments.
The emperor usually had a building project which in general supported the construction of roads as needed, an aquaduct, a theater and a public bath. The office sponsored public games in the form of gladitorial contests. Chariot racing was added.
Polythesim as a religious form was only one step beyond the superstition of totemism.
People organized their community social lives around the belief in the main deity. Fear and prejudice were divined as that which drove the formation of a mob. The mob had to be appeased by the judgment of a magistrate.
Stories about the cruelty of the emperor seemed to act as a deterrent to the expectation of reasonable judgment. This deterrence was supported by the stories of immoral behavior on the part of the gods.
The republic was a system of election which could somehow plumb the will of the people in terms of practical administration with stories and festivals that favored the consideration of the calendar with respect for harvest and special components of time in the year.
The festivals were ordered with respect for the movement of constellations in the night sky.
Leading patricians and at least some emperors must have looked at the monotheism of the Jews as an advancement that their system wasn't ready to accept at the time. It may have looked like it was too well ordered by comparison.
There were those in the first century however who must have seen that the future for the official religion of Rome would have to adopt faith in one God eventually.
John the Baptist had been described as a witness to the Light of the world. He did not claim to be the light for the world from which he had withdrawn.
The statement that the Word became flesh and dwelt among us was a summary of the major themes for the other gospels. There were grounds for agreement from Greeks, Jews and Romans in the appeal to the Logos or the Word as the means to order social reality.
Mark traced the origin of Jesus to Nazareth to show that he was the Servant for mankind. Matthew drew the lineage back to Abraham to state that he was the promised Messiah for the nations. Luke illustrated that he was the Son of Adam and fulfillment of the Perfect Man.
John declared that Jesus had come from heaven as the Son of the Father. He described 7 miracles to show the glory of his divine person. Six of the miracles did not appear in the other gospels.
His theology was dedicated to the reconciliation of different worlds. Jesus was the author of this reconciliation with the atonement made by his sacrifice on the cross.
---------------------------
John 1:29-34
The next day he saw Jesus coming towards him and declared, 'Here is the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world! This is he of whom I said, "After me comes a man who ranks ahead of me because he was before me." I myself did not know him, but I am baptizing with water for this reason that he might be revealed to Israel.' John testified, 'I saw the Spirit descending from heaven like a dove and it remained on him. I myself did not know him, but the one who sent me to baptize with water said to me, "He on whom you see the Spirit descend and remain is the one who baptizes with the Holy Spirit." I myself have seen and have testified that this is the Son of God.'
---------------------
The Lamb of God takes away the sin of the world.
He ranks ahead of me because before me he was as barley pearled.
I baptized with water that he might be revealed.
The Light descended like a dove that he might the Spirit wield.
He upon whom the dove descended
will baptize with the Holy Spirit so love will be apprehended.
I have seen and have testified
that Jesus is the divine person whose body was crucified.
================
Statistics
Statistics is the modern form of augury. The analysis of data is used to predict future outcomes. Instead of looking at the flight of birds through a field of vision or evaluating the entrails of an animal that had been sacrificed for expatiation, numbers that represent categorical counts are examined to assess behavioral or physical trends.
------------------------
Statistics is the modern form for augury.
Categorical counts provide terms for the prediction glossary.
Flights of birds through a field of vision
had provided a visual example of group indecision.
The entrails of an animal sacrificed for expiation
had demonstrated striations in station.
The collection of data for a categorical description
is organized for display to form a position on subscription.
=================
The study of the subject concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.
Mathematical analysis uses quantified models to represent synopses for a given set of experimental data or real-life study.
The evolution of statistics has been intimately connected with the development of sovereign states by imitation of what had been practiced by the office of the Roman censor.
European states that followed the peace of Westphalia (1648) employed statistical data to describe sovereignty and to predict costs for the future.
Probability theory put statistics in a firm theoretical base.
The capacity for modern technology to process large amounts of data have made statistical concepts a key concern for application in computer science.
A number of statistical concepts have an important impact on a wide range of sciences. These include the design of experiments and approaches to statistical interpretation such as Bayesian inference.
Experimental design is the organization for any task that aims to describe and explain the variation of information under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the variation.
Bayes’s theorem describes the probability of an event based on prior knowledge of conditions that might be related to the occurence or incidence of the event. If the probability that someone has cancer is related to their age for example, the theorem provides that the age can be used to more accurately infer the probability of cancer than can be done without knowledge of the age.
Experiment and the inference of probability can be considered to have their own sequence in the development of the ideas underlying modern statistics.
Statistics
wiki History of Statistics
Literacy and Censorship
The word censor has an unfortunate affiliation with the act of censorship. The more practical application is concerned with the act of compiling statistics as a descriptive anaylsis of how people are.
Inferences on what to do to improve the state of things can be drawn, but the inference is drawn from observed phenomena as opposed to an unreal ideal.
Roman Censor
The censor was a magistrate in ancient Rome who was responsible for maintaining the census and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances.
A census is taken to make a count about the members of a given population. The procedure of taking the count systematically acquired and records information about the population. Categorical qualities were enumerated to describe the size of particular characteristics.
This term is used mostly in connection with national population and residency for each household. Other common types include traditional culture, business, supplies and traffic censuses.
The word had a Latin origin during the Roman Republic. The census was a list that kept track of all adult males fit for military service. It was first instituted by Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome, c. 575–535 BCE.
The consuls had responsibility for the census after the Republic was founded in 509. No consuls were elected in 442. The plebeians wanted to attain higher magistracies. Only patricians could be elected consuls. Some military tribunes were plebeians.
Tribunes with consular power were appointed to take the census in 443. The patricians removed the right to take the census from the consuls and tribunes. Two magistrates called censores were elected by the Patricians in Rome.
Patrician consulars of the early republic interspersed public office with agricultural labor. Cicero remarked in the first century BCE "in agris erant tum senatores, id est senes."
Senators were in the fields. It was the custom for the senior officials. Senior senators would live on their farms in those days. The custom would become obsolete by the 2d century.
The magistracy continued to be controlled by patricians until Gaius Marcius Rutilus was appointed the first plebeian censor in 351 BCE. One of the Publilian laws required that one censor had to be a plebeian 12 years later (339). No plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people despite this until 280 BCE.
The celebration of purification was known as the "lustrum". The lustration was originally a sacrifice for expiation and purification offered by one of the censors in the name of the Roman people at the close of the taking of the census.
The expiatory offering was often made in the form of an animal sacrifice, known as a suovetaurilia. Lustratio was an ancient Greek and ancient Roman purification ceremony. It included a procession and in some circumstances the sacrifice of a pig (sus), a ram (ovis) and a bull (taurus) (suovetaurilia).
Certain records documented the sacrifice of dogs to indicate that the dog days were over. Predation by hunting was being turned on the wolves who took livestock from their owners. Armies witnessed this kind of sacrifice as a symbolic association intended to end the human 'predation' defended by an opposing army.
Lupercalia
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Instructions on the Lustratio performed for the Roman town of Iguvium illustrate that the ceremony consisted of a procession of priests, sacrificial victims and people around the town's citadel.
The procession stopped at the three gates to the citadel where the sacrifices were made. The gates were considered to be weak points which required strength.
Lustratio ceremonies were also used to bless crops, farm animals, new colonies and armies before going into battle or passing into review. It is likely that the purification element in the public ceremony included the sharing of incense with a censor and the sprinkling of water with a straw whisk.
These censuses were taken at five-year intervals. A lustrum came to refer to the five-year inter-census period.
Both censors were plebeians for the first time in 131 BCE.
The purification of the Roman people was performed by one of the censors in the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) after the taking of the census was over. The Campo Marzio was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about 2 square kilometres (0.8 sq. miles/ 490 acres) in extent.
Mars was an agricultural guardian as well as the god of war. He was a part of the Archaic Triad along with Jupiter and Quirinus.
Quirinus had no Greek equivalent. He was the guardian of the Roman people. His name may be derived from the Sabine word quiris "spear". He was the oak-god (quercus). The quirites were the men of the oaken spear.
The Aeneid of Virgil was written under Augustus. He claimed ancestry through Julius Caesar and his mother Venus. The survivors from the fallen city of Troy banded together under Aeneas according to the Aeneid.
They underwent a series of adventures around the Mediterranean Sea. They journey included a stop at newly founded Carthage under the rule of Queen Dido. They eventually reached the Italian coast.
Aeneas married Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. Turnus had been betrothed to Lavinia. He started a war after the marriage to Aeneas. Aeneas won the war. He won the right to assimilate with the local people.
The area that would become Rome was covered with forest at the time. The Aeneid said that the race of men came from the tree trunks. They were as hard as oak. They had no settled life, no arts, no skill at yoking oxen. They gathered their provisions or from the hunt. It said that they got their food from oaken bough spears and the wild game that was hunted.
Satre was known as the one who hurled lightning bolts (the spear chucker). This ability was put with Satus (sowing) to represent the leadership of the Latins.
Sterculius derived from stercus, "dung" or "manure". It referred to the odor of re-emergence from death to life associated with the fertilization of the field was manure. It was Saturn who had given the people laws and bestowed the name Latium upon them.
The agricultural aspect of Saturn was secondary to his primary relation with time and seasons. Time consumes all things. The name Saturn comes from the Latin word satis which means to fill or to satisfy.
Saturn was an anthropomorphic representation of Time as filled or satiated by all things or generations. This would become an argument against the royal line of succession for the Romans.
Octavian Augustus revived the argument for it for the value of the inheritance preserved by the family line of succession with the addition of the option of adoption for the selection of an heir.
The young son of Aeneas, Ascanius, also known as Iulus, went on to found Alba Longa and the line of Alban kings. This line filled the chronological gap between the Trojan saga and the traditional founding of Rome in the 8th century BCE.
King Procas was the father of Numitor and Amulius toward the end of this line. Numitor became king of Alba Longa at the death of Procas, but Amulius captured him and sent him to prison. He also forced Numitor's daughter Rhea Silvia to become a virgin priestess among the Vestals.
Rhea Silva gave birth to the twins, Romulus and Remus. The Italian myth identified the twins as the sons of the vestal virgin and Mars, the god of war. They were abandoned at birth, because of a prophecy that they would overthrow their great-uncle Amulius.
He had overthrown Rhea Silvia's father Numitor. The twins were abandoned on the river Tiber by servants who took pity on the infants despite their orders to let them die of exposure.
The twins were nurtured by a she-wolf until a shepherd named Faustulus found them and took them as his sons. Faustulus and his wife Acca Larentia raised the boys. When Remus and Romulus became adults, they killed Amulius and restored Numitor.
They decided to establish a city but, they quarreled over the location. Romulus was on Palatine Hill. Remus wanted to found the city on Aventine Hill. Remus attacked. He was killed by Romulus. The fratricide was later taken to represent the city's history of internecine political strife and bloodshed.
The Roman Empire deposed Herod Archelaus from his rule of Judea as a Roman client king in 6 CE. His territory was converted into the Roman province of Judea.
Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, the newly-appointed Imperial Legate (governor) of the province of Roman Syria, was assigned to carry out a tax census of the new province. The Census of Quirinius was as symbolic as it was practical.
The Gospel of Luke placed the birth of Jesus during the reign of Herod the Great (Luke 1:5) as the first registration and was taken while Quirinius was governor of Syria. Herod had died nine years before the earliest possible date of the census.
Luke's gospel was written after that of Matthew. The element regarding the census was a symbolic addition that had been made to appeal to the knowledge of a Greco-Roman audience.
The Roman Censore had the practical task to count the people in the Republic. The task was given a festival to celebrate the documentation of numbers by the event. The descriptive task was given a moral connotation that has since been associated with the censorship of media expression.
The liberal media has taken the president's criticism of fake news as an offense to their 'freedom', but they have gone so far to the political left that they seek to censor the criticism by their support for impeachment.
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Prosody of Poetry
Al-Khalil
b. 718 Oman
d. 791 Basra
Oman is an Arab country on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. Its official religion is Islam.
It holds a strategically important position at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, The country shares land borders with the United Arab Emirates to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west and Yemen to the southwest. Marine borders are held in common with Iran and Pakistan.
The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam exclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries.
Al Khalil was born in Oman in 718 CE.
Al-Khalīl was given the name Aḫmad al-Farāhīdī at birth. He was the first scholar to subject the prosody of Classical Arabic poetry to a detailed phonological analysis. Prosody is the observation of the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry.
The primary data he listed and categorized in meticulous detail was extremely complex to master and utilize. Later theorists have developed simpler formulations with greater coherence and general utility.
He was also a pioneer in the field of cryptography who influenced the work of Al-Kindi.
Al-Farahidi's "Book of Cryptographic Messages", was the first book on cryptography for the analysis of the codification of text written by a linguist.
The lost work contains many "firsts". The use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels is one of them.
Permutations and combinations are the various ways in which objects from a set may be selected to form subsets generally without replacement.
This selection of subsets is called a permutation when the order of selection is a factor. It is a combination when order is not a factor.
The calculation of permutations or combinations is used in probability theory to enumerate possibilities in expression. The determination of probability is essential in the limitation of what is possible in cryptography. Further limitation to what is probable is a refinement.
Elementary exercises in this type of calculation can be introduced at the grade level. It is generally investigated as a Middle Grade introduction to probability.
Later Arab cryptographers explicitly resorted to al-Farahidi's phonological analysis for calculating letter frequency in their own works. His work on cryptography influenced Al-Kindi (c. 801–873). He discovered the method of frequency analysis for the decryption of code..
Truth
Al-Kindi
b. 801 Kufa, Abbasid Caliphate
d. 873 Baghdad, Abbasid Caliphate
Kufa is a city in Iraq about 170 kilometres (110 mi) south of Baghdad. It is 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates River. It is one of five Iraqi cities that are of great importance to Shi'ite Muslims.
The Abbasids under al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba took Kufa and made it their capital in 749. They moved their seat to Baghdad in 762. Kufa's importance gradually shifted from caliphal politics to Islamic theory and practice under the Umayyad and early Abbasid decades.
There was no unbroken Muslim or Ishmaelite population dating back to the prophet Muhammad's time in Iraq.
Al-Kindi was born in Kufa and educated in Baghdad. He became a prominent figure in the House of Wisdom. A number of Abbasid Caliphs appointed him to oversee the translation of Greek scientific and philosophical texts into the Arabic language.
Hellenistic wisdom was often called the "philosophy of the ancients" by Muslim scholars. It had a profound effect on al-Kindi. He synthesized, adapted and promoted Hellenistic and Peripatetic philosophy in the Muslim world.
He subsequently wrote hundreds of original treatises of his own on a range of subjects ranging from metaphysics, ethics, logic and psychology, to medicine, pharmacology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology and optics.
His study extended further afield to more practical topics like perfumes, swords, jewels, glass, dyes, zoology, tides, mirrors, meteorology and earthquakes.
Al-Kindi played an important role in introducing Indian numerals to the Islamic world in the field of mathematics. Arabic numerals were subsequently introduced to the Christian world along with Al-Khwarizmi.
Al-Kindi was one of the fathers of cryptography. He built on the work of Al-Khalil (717–786). Al-Kindi's book entitled Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages gave rise to the birth of cryptanalysis. It was the earliest known use of statistical inference.
Several new methods for breaking ciphers were presented. Frequency analysis was notably among them.
Frequency analysis is also known as counting letters. It is the study of the frequency of letters or groups of letters in a ciphertext.
A ciphertext is the product of encryption performed on plaintext using an algorithm called a cipher.
The text is known as encrypted or encoded information because it contains a form of the original plaintext that is unreadable by a human or computer without the proper cipher to decrypt it.
Decryption is the inverse of encryption. It is the process of turning ciphertext into readable plaintext.
There is a characteristic distribution of letters that is roughly the same for almost all samples of that language. E, T, A and O are the most common given a section of English language for instance. Z, Q and X are rare. TH, ER, ON and AN are the most common pairs of letters. These pairs are called bigrams or digraphs. SS, EE, TT, and FF are the most common repeats.
The nonsense phrase "ETAOIN SHRDLU" represents the 12 most frequent letters in typical English language text.
Al-Kindi's mathematical and medical expertise developed a scale that would allow doctors to quantify the potency of their medication.
Bills of Mortality
John Graunt
b. 4.24.1620 London, England
d. 4.18.1674 London
Stuart London
The house of Stuart faced the difficulty of managing the British Reformation with monarchs from the kingdom of Scotland. The Scots were mainly Presbyterians, but the royal house maintained alliance with the Catholic Church. The Irish maintained the same alliance.
The King of England had become the head of the Church according to the Royal Act of Supremacy. Henry VIII's basic observation was that a house divided in loyalties resulted in a house divided against itself.
The papal office had claimed papal supremacy and authority for investiture presumably with the support of the college of cardinals. The claim to supremacy was used to call for the Crusades and to institute the Inquisition.
The movement toward republican government and global colonialism threatened to institute slavery and the exploitation of natural resources on countries that lacked centralized government due to tribal organization in primitive society.
The beginning of the 17th century in the kingdom of England was characterized by the Guy Fawkes incident, the plague and the Great Fire of London.
This was a period that saw the beginnings of the press (newspapers), the first stirrings of scientific discourse and the city’s great chroniclers such as Pepys, Evelyn and, latterly, Defoe.
The preparations for the coronation of King James I were interrupted by a severe plague epidemic.
James VI of Scotland ascended to the English throne as the first Stuart monarch when Queen Elizabeth I died on March 24, 1603. He traveled to London from Scotland and was crowned king as James I of England on July 25, 1603.
His ceremonial procession through the city of London was postponed until March 15, 1604 due to the report of the plague.
James's reign in Scotland was the longest of any Scottish monarch (~58 yrs.). He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced great difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605 and repeated conflicts with the English Parliament.
The plot was reported as a failed assassination attempt against King James I by a group of provincial English Catholics led by Robert Catesby.
The plan was to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament on 5 November 1605. This event was to be the prelude to a popular revolt in the Midlands during which James's nine-year-old daughter, Elizabeth, was to be installed as the Catholic head of state.
The Midlands was the central part of England. It was the cultural and geographical area located between Northern and Southern England.
Catesby embarked on the scheme after hopes of securing greater religious tolerance under King James had faded. A number of English Catholics were disappointed. There were 12 fellow plotters.
Fawkes had 10 years of military experience fighting in the Spanish Netherlands in the failed suppression of the Dutch Revolt. He was given charge of the explosives according to the report about the plot.
Many have made life-size effigies of the Catholic Yorkshireman every year since, then set it on fire for the delight of anti-Catholic sentiment.
This was the man who plotted not just to bring down the system, but to blow up the king and his government. His actions were branded as treachery and treason in 1605. He was heralded as the first terrorist in British society.
The Lord Mayor's Show was revived by order of the king in 1609 after it had been discontinued for years. The dissolved monastery of the Charterhouse was purchased by Thomas Sutton for £13,000 in 1611. The new hospital, chapel and schoolhouse were begun in the same year.
Charterhouse School was to be one of the principal public schools in London until it moved to Surrey in the Victorian era. The site is still used as a medical school.
Charles I ascended to the throne in 1625. Aristocrats began to inhabit the West End in large numbers during his reign. Increasing numbers of country landowners and their families lived in London for part of the year simply for the social life in addition to those who had specific business at court.
King Charles I raised his banner at Nottingham in 1642. London took the side of the parliament during the English Civil War. The king had the upper hand in military terms initially. He won the Battle of Brentford a few miles to the west of London in November.
The City organised a makeshift army and Charles hesitated and retreated. An extensive system of fortifications was built subsequently to protect London from a renewed attack by the Royalists.
This comprised a strong earthen rampart, enhanced with bastions and redoubts. It was well beyond the City walls and encompassed the whole urban area, including Westminster and Southwark.
London was not seriously threatened by the royalists again, and the financial resources of the City made an important contribution to the parliamentarians victory in the war.
The civil war ended in defeat for the Royalists. The execution of King Charles on 30 January 1649, heralded Oliver Cromwell's short lived Commonwealth.
Cromwell allowed Jews to return to London in 1655. This ended a 365-year banishment. They built their first Synagogue in 1657 at Creechurch Lane.
The Commonwealth quickly collapsed after Cromwell's death in 1658 and in 1660 the monarchy was restored under Charles II.
The unsanitary and overcrowded City of London had suffered from numerous outbreaks of the plague many times over the centuries, but in Britain it is the eighth and last outbreak of plague in the 17th century which is remembered as the "Great Plague".
The plague first raged in the Netherlands in 1663. English authorities imposed a quarantine on Dutch shipping to prevent the spread of the disease to Britain. Illicit shipping continued despite this.
Cases of plague were reported in the port of Yarmouth by November. The severely cold winter of 1664-65 curtailed the flea population from reproduction. Cases of plague did not occur to any noticeable extent until the spring of 1665.
The outbreak flared up dramatically around London in June as the flea population exploded in warm weather. The plague moved into the City itself and casualties peaked in August.
Hygiene was not maintained in the overcrowded tenements and garrets in the poorer parts of the city. There was inadequate sanitation. Pen drains flowed along the center of winding streets.
The cobbles were slippery with animal dung, rubbish and the slops thrown out of the houses. The streets were muddy and buzzing with flies in summer and awash with sewage in winter.
The City Corporation employed "rakers" to remove the worst of the filth and it was transported to mounds outside the walls where it accumulated and continued to decompose.
The stench was so bad people walked around with handkerchiefs or nosegays pressed against their nostrils.
It is first necessary to know how big the population was in which it occurred in order to judge the severity of an epidemic. There was no official census of the population to provide this figure.
The best contemporary count comes from the work of John Graunt (1620–1674). He was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society and one of the first demographers to bring a scientific approach to the collection of statistics.
Graunt became interested in mortality statistics despite his lack of formal education.
He got the idea to write the book that was to make him famous from having thought a great deal about the Bills of Mortality (lists of the dead) that had been published in England beginning in the late sixteenth century.
The full title for his book was Natural and Political Observations mentioned in a following index, and made upon the Bills of Mortality With reference to the Government, Religion, Trade, Growth, Ayre, diseases, and the several Changes of the said City.
The Bills of Mortality were the vital statistics about the citizens of London collected over a 70-year period. Graunt explained in his book hereafter referred to as Observations that the accounts were kept as the number of deaths rose from the plague.
The plague was a catastrophic illness whose germs were carried by fleas that lived as parasites on rats. The number of deaths from the illness led it to be categorized as an epidemic. One-fourth of England's population died in 1625 alone, many from the plague.
The recording of the London statistics first began in the year 1592 according to Graunt. It was a time of great Mortality. Documentation was resumed again in the year 1603 after the great Plague happened.
His Observations used analysis of the bills of mortality in early modern London. Charles II and other officials attempted to create a system to warn of the onset and spread of bubonic plague in the city.
He estimated that 384,000 people lived in the City of London, the Liberties, Westminster and the out-parishes in 1662. The estimate was based on figures taken from the bills of mortality published each week in the capital.
These different districts with different administrations constituted the officially recognized extent of London as a whole. He revised his estimate in 1665 to 'not above 460,000'. Other contemporaries put the figure higher, but with no mathematical basis to support their estimates. The French Ambassador, for example, suggested 600,000.
The erudition of the Observations led Graunt to the Royal Society, where he presented his work and was subsequently elected a fellow in 1662 with the endorsement of the King.
Graunt founded the science of demography, the statistical study of human populations. This was also the start for the measure of epidemiology based on statistics for the incidence for disease.
The institution of demographics in Britain in the 17th century was a movement to improve on the statistics that had been kept by the office of the Censor in the Roman Republic.
The emphasis on the mortality lists served as a catch for public attention with respect for constructing the means to count the population.
The mortality angle was reported with the publication of Graunt's Observations. A summary of the information was of interest for the public through the newspapers as well.
The count of deaths that resulted from the plague pointed the poor among the population to the importance of public and private sanitation. Hygiene was also recommended as an avenue to prolong the quality of life.
The estimate of the population for the previous year was adjusted with respect for the number of deaths. The incidence of the plague was seen as a motivation to keep more accurate records.
The difficulty with the emphasis on mortality was that it didn't include a report about births or naturalized citizens.
An accurate account would have to add new members and subtract the deceased to the estimate of the population from the previous year.
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The incidence of the plague was motivation to keep accurate records.
The estimate of the population was adjusted with afferent wards.
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Statistics don't lie. Mathematicians do? Oh! That is so wrong.
Sir John Sinclair
b. 5.10.1754 Thurso Castle, Caithness, Scotland
d. 12.21.1835 Edinburgh, Scotland
John Sinclair was a proponent of parliamentary reform. He wrote several tracts on the matter. The anonymous Lucubrations published in 1782 was a notable contribution. He was not for annual elections even to the lower house.
His experience with education in law and in parliament was such that he knew that more time was needed to represent the constituency.
He went on a tour of Europe after his first wife died in 1785. He started in Paris and traveled through northern Europe as far as Moscow.
He set about managing and implementing improvements on his Scottish estates upon his return in 1787.
Sinclair had gotten particularly engaged in the improvement of sheep-breeding and wool production. He wrote several tracts on the matter and in 1791 founded an society in Edinburgh for the purpose.
He received a baronetcy from Pitt the Younger in 1786 and a doctorate in law from the University of Glasgow in 1788.
He devised a plan to conduct an extensive empirical survey of Scotland. He prevailed on the General Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland to provide the means and information to compile his massive, twenty-one volume Statistical Account of Scotland in 1791.
This was the most extensive use of the the term "statistics" in English for the time. It was an anglicized form of the German word "statistik". Gottingen professor Gottfried Achenwall had used it to denote the "science of the State" in 1749.
Sinclair's use of the term went beyond the narrow State-centric political definition.
There were those who were surprised that he adopted the terms Statistics and Statistical. They thought that some term in English might have expressed the same intent.
Sinclair explained that his tour through the northern parts of Europe led him to place in Germany where he found that they were engaged in a species of political inquiry to which the name Statistics had been given.
His use of the term was different. Statistics meant a statistical inquiry for the purpose of ascertaining the political strength of a country or questions respecting matters of state in Germany.
The idea he annexed to the term was an inquiry into the state of the country for the purpose of ascertaining the quantum of happiness enjoyed by its inhabitants or the means of its future improvement.
He thought that a new word might attract more public attention, so he resolved to adopt it. He expressed the hope would completely become naturalized and incorporated within the English language.
The distinction between the strength of the political state and the quantum happiness of the inhabitants could be argued as different ways to describe the same thing, but the explicit expression of concern for the inhabitants could result in the difference between winning and losing an election.
Sinclair collected his data by sending out original questionnaires to parish ministers. This method of collection was followed by visits from his army of "statistical missionaries". It was unlike older "political arithmeticians" who relied on existing records.
Sinclair's results were published in 21 large volumes between 1791 and 1799. His census was sometimes called the "Old Statistical Account". It was the most comprehensive census to date and continued to serve until a new account was done in the mid-19th C.
While he was still in Parliament, he persuaded the Pitt government to establish a Board of Agriculture and Internal Improvement in 1793. He was appointed its first director. He encouraged the dissemination of "scientific agriculture" and new husbandry techniques throughout Britain.
He essentially made himself into the modern form of a Roman patrician with his application of his legal education to the administrative reform of his position in Parliament.
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Statistics was used to measure the quantum of happiness
for people in the realm of sovereign champions.
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wiki Sir John Sinclair 1st Baronet
wiki Statistical Accounts of Scotland
Sinclair biography
John Sinclair went on a tour of Europe before he returned to Great Britain to write an extensive statistical account of Scotland.
The print at the time lacked frequency in production for the letter 's' as a typeset. The letter 'f' was inserted where an 's' was intended with some exception. It was also used where 'f' was appropriate to the communication.
The following statement becomes intelligible in the light of this condition.
Lucubrations
Text
"If any alteration might be wifhed or fuggefted in the prefent frame of Parliaments, it fhould be in favour of a more complete Reprefentation of the people."
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Theory
Auguste Comte
b. 1.19.1798 Montpelier, France
d. 9.5.1857 Paris, France
Auguste Comte was a French philosopher and writer who formulated the doctrine of positivism. This theory posited that certain or "positive" knowledge was based on natural phenomena, their properties and relations.
Information derived from sensory experience and interpreted through reason and logic formed the exclusive source of all certainty in knowledge. Positivism held that valid knowledge (certitude or truth) was found only in this a posteriori knowledge.
Verified data (positive facts) received from the senses was known as empirical evidence. The theory was a development of empiricism.
Positivism also held that society, like the physical world, operates according to general laws. Introspective and intuitive knowledge was rejected, as was metaphysics and theology. Metaphysical and theological claims could not be verified by sense experience.
Comte is often regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term and the founder of the academic discipline of sociology. He was influenced by the utopian socialist Henri Saint-Simon.
Comte developed the positive philosophy in an attempt to remedy the social malaise of the French Revolution. He called for a new social doctrine based on the sciences.
He was a major influence on 19th-century thought through his influence on the work of social thinkers such as Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill and George Eliot.
His concept of sociologie and social evolutionism set the tone for early social theorists and anthropologists such as Harriet Martineau and Herbert Spencer. This evolved into the modern academic sociology presented by Émile Durkheim in practical and objective social research.
Comte's social theories culminated in his "Religion of Humanity". This presaged the development of non-theistic religious humanist and secular humanist organization.
The emphasis on objectivity was so strong that it negated the value of human values. It was like Nietzsche's claim to a perspective that was 'beyond good and evil.'
The negation of goodness however resulted in an environment that was rife for anti-Christian, anti-religious and atheistic humanism that supported the destruction of old forms to make way for those new forms that were 'revolutionary.'
Unethical ventures into scientific experiment would be entertained for the benefit of 'humanity.' It was an antecedent to the Nazi experiments on Jews as 'lab rats' in concentration camps for the field of 'positive' investigation.
Auguste Comte
S. 奥古斯特·孔戴
T. 奧古斯特·孔戴
奥 Ao mysterious 奧 oku heart O お- オ- O 오 five
古 gu ancient 古 ko old gyu ぎゅ ギュ gwi 귀 ear
斯 si this 斯 shi this su す ス seu 스 s
特 te special 特 toku special to と ト teu 트 t
孔 Kong hole 孔 ko cavity Kon こん コン Kong 콩 bean
戴 dai support 戴 tai crowned to と ト te 테 rim
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A posteriori thought is metaphysical.
It's not so mysterious as it is statistically inferential.
A whole is left in the soul of philosophy
with the removal of conceptual virtuosity.
Theory provides a context for factuality.
No theory results in too much detachment from reality.
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William James (1842-1910)
The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902)
Text
The Varieties of Religious Experience was written to promote healthy minded religion. This healthiness of mind was contrasted with the sick soul.
James was psychological about medicine and religion. The Principles of Psychology was twice the length of the Varieties.
His study was directed to that part of human nature that was related to the religious experience. Healthy-mindedness was informed by reverence for goodness in life. Walt Whitman was cited as an example.
His openness to the varieties of religious experience wasn't as focused on the value of loyalty as Royce. If you consider the expansiveness of constitutional experiment in freedom of religion there is no legislated recognition of an official religion.
The first Chief Justice of the US, John Jay, had expressed his opinion that elected officials should be Christian, but the opinion was dependent upon the will of the people in the context of election. He had defined unity with respect for national security, but the classical view was contrasted with the biblical for the negotiation of trade in international relations.
James did recommend the consideration of the value of truth in the context of logical coherence from the perspective of the experience selected by the cultural context. The value of other religious traditions was meant to qualify agreement with what is true and beneficial in Christianity.
Countries with an official religion have a similar difficulty from a different angle. How is a nation to trade with other nations if agreement in religion is taken as the basis for trust?
National trends and cultural context were tabled as a consideration in religious life for the sake of the mystical experience of the 'trend-setters.' This brought the consideration to the ascetics insofar as the mystical experience was considered to be the objective for the ascetic practice.
James brushed aside the conventional observances of the religious believer in his country. This religion had been made by others, communicated by tradition, determined by imitation in custom and retained by the habit of practice.
James said,
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The consideration of the mystical experience of awe
has to be tempered by caution towards the ascetic fever drawn.
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While the onus for this choice contradicted the greatest happiness principle for morals and legislation as advocated by Jeremy Bentham, it provided the logical designation for not harming self or others as a defining characteristic for mental health in the observance of the law. It was a pragmatic distinction in judgment regarding free speech.
If someone were to say that human rights are women's rights, it could qualify as an overstatement that wasn't representative of the whole constituency, but offered a complaint toward the public perception of male domination in society.
If the statement were made by a leading official prior to a series of media stories about men being accused of sexual assault by unsubstantiated allegations, the opinion was not offered as a criticism. It was the basis for a national policy supported by covert agency and media reports.
The perception of male domination became more pronounced in republic than it was in kingdoms. The British kingdom has had a number of female monarchs as a testimony to the substance of women's leadership in western society.
Another might make the statement that "White people are the cause of all the problems in the world" with reference to the institution of the slave trade in the European expansion of global influence.
This would ascribe the action of a limited portion of the particular population to the whole group, when a considerable effort to outlaw the trade and the institution was organized in Great Britain with a majority white population.
British officials then negotiated an impressive array of treaties to persuade other governments to adopt legislation against the trade and the institution.
The statement against white people could also be taken as an overstatement to express frustration with the mechanisms of change in a democratic republic. When it is supported by government policy under the advisement of Rawls theory of justice, it is aimed at the institution of minority prejudice against the majority.
The policy is guided by the judgment that the majority is always at fault with respect for institutional prejudice while a minority group can never be held accountable for such. This policy is harmful in terms of social and political institutions.
While these statements were related to public policy issues as opposed to specifically religious concerns, religion plays a role in the moral decisions made by political leadership.
Slavery was more a matter of republican government seeking to use it as a tool to compete with monarchies that had adopted the practice. Monarchies probably allowed the practice to compete with the rise of republican government, but it reduces to a limitation of the right to own private property in any case.
When the controversy was active however, there were those that claimed that the Apostle Paul approved of the institution. There were also those who cited Plato or Aristotle as having authorized it with their opinions. It has been outlawed on moral grounds whatever was used to justify it in the past.
The right for women to vote is also a movement in the direction of correcting errors with respect for the perception of male domination, but the reproductive and nurturing roles of women doesn't dictate that they have to have a majority in all branches of the national government to 'correct' the problem.
The Rights of the American People
The constitution was not written for rich white men.
Spinoza proposed a constitutional monarchy to support law that didn't concede to partiality in judgment. His family had been forced from Portugal by the Inquisition. They found refuge in the Dutch Republic.
The Inquisition was only part of the increased demand to accept papal supremacy as the authority for Europe and quite possibly, the world.
The claim came first, then the authority to invest bishops as papal representatives in civil authority for all the kingdoms throughout the Roman Empire.
The Crusades and the Inquisition were proximate. Indulgences and the threat to legislate the subordination of royal authority to papal decrees were part of the picture.
Spinoza saw the need to document the principles for law for the public in order to increase literacy in law for national unity in security with impartial judgment..People had to be able to participate in government according to the rules for the action.
He was the one who proposed a Constitution for the sovereignty of national law.
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